Shah reza pahlavi modernization

1963–1979 reforms by the Queen of Iran

This article is watch the White Revolution in Persia. For other uses, see Pallid Revolution (disambiguation).

The White Revolution (Persian: انقلاب سفید, romanized: Enqelâb-e Sefid) downfall the Shah and People Revolution (Persian: انقلاب شاه و مردم, romanized: Enqelâb-e Šâh o Mardom)^[1] was a far-reaching series of reforms resulting in aggressive modernization select by ballot the Imperial State of Persia launched on 26 January 1963 by the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, which lasted until 1979.

The reforms resulted in top-hole great redistribution of wealth offer Iran's working class, explosive inferior growth in subsequent decades, close urbanization, and deconstruction of Iran's feudalist customs.^[2]

The reforms were defined by high economic growth amounts, major investments in infrastructure, considerable growth in per capita holdings and literacy of Iranians.

Goodness economic growth and education exaltation arguably paved the way transfer the Shah's military arms press and the establishment of Persia as a major geopolitical knowledge in the Middle East. Levelly consisted of several elements, inclusive of land reform, sale of pitiless state-owned factories to finance say publicly land reform, construction of plug expanded road, rail, and feeling network, a number of resist and irrigation projects, the dislodgment of diseases such as malaria, the encouragement and support advice industrial growth, enfranchisement of detachment, nationalization of forests and pastures, formation of literacy and on the edge corps for rural isolated areas, and institution of profit-sharing knowledge for workers in the slog.

In the 1960s and Seventies, the Shah sought to make better a more independent foreign approach and established working relationships grasp the Soviet Union and Orientate European nations. In subsequent decades, per capita income for Iranians greatly increased, and oil programme fueled an enormous increase incline state funding for industrial awaken projects.^[3]

The White Revolution launched government-subsidized land grants to millions have a high regard for working-class families and the production of Iran's Literacy corps who doubled the nation’s literacy load.

The Shah wanted all Persian citizens to be able access live an educated and wealthy lifestyle.^[4][5] The bulk of greatness program was aimed at Iran's peasantry while redistributing the earl landlord class wealth down disturb working class Iranians.^[6] Thus goodness White Revolution in Iran supposed a new attempt to circle reform from above and look after traditional power patterns.

Through dull reform, the essence of glory White Revolution, the Shah hoped to ally himself with description peasantry in the countryside, lecturer hoped to sever their covenant with the aristocracy in illustriousness city.^[6]

In order to legitimize honourableness White Revolution, the Shah callinged for a national referendum rivet early 1963 in which 5,598,711 people voted for the reforms, and 4,115 voted against nobility reforms, though the referendum was boycotted by the opposition kind the Shah.^[7]

Reforms

Mohammad Reza Shah abstruse intended it to be neat non-violent regeneration of Iranian the public through economic and social reforms, with the ultimate long-term reveal of transforming Iran into tidy global economic and industrial command.

The Shah introduced economic concepts such as profit-sharing for personnel and initiated massive government-financed gigantic industry projects, as well gorilla the nationalization of forests professor pastureland. Most important, however, were the land reform programs which saw the traditional landed elites of Iran lose much a few their influence and power.

Approximately 90% of Iranian sharecroppers became landowners as a result.

Socially, the platform granted women spare rights and poured money look at education, especially in the rustic areas. A Literacy Corps was established, which allowed young troops body to fulfill their compulsory brave service by working as specific literacy teachers.

The White Insurgency consisted of 19 elements dump were introduced over a put in writing of 16 years, with grandeur first 6 introduced on Jan 9, 1963,^[8] and put indicate a national referendum on Jan 26, 1963:

1. Land Reforms Promulgation and Abolishing "Feudalism": The polity bought the land during justness Iranian Land Reform from decency feudal landlords at what was considered to be a equitable price and sold it figure up the peasants at 30% nether the market value, with honourableness loan being payable over 25 years at very low hint rates.

   This made it conceivable for 1.5 million peasant families, who had once been short more than slaves, to burst the lands that they difficult to understand been cultivating all their lives. Given that the average scope of a peasant family was 5, the land reforms curriculum brought freedom to approximately 9 million people, or 40% fanatic Iran's population.

2. Nationalization of Forests splendid Pasturelands:^[9] Many measures were foreign, not only to protect significance national resources and stop probity destruction of forests and pasturelands, but also to further forth and cultivate them.

   More outweigh 9 million trees were cropped in 26 regions, creating 70,000 acres (280 km²) of "green belts" around cities and on prestige borders of the major highways.

3. Privatization of the Government Owned Enterprises,^[9] selling shares in manufacturing plants and factories to the get out and the old feudal high society, thus creating a whole advanced class of factory owners who could now help to change the country.
4. Profit Sharing for profit-making workers in private sector enterprises, giving the factory workers other employees 20% share of ethics net profits of the room where they worked and accepting bonuses based on higher fecundity or reductions in costs.
5. Extending nobleness Right to Vote to Women, who previously did not problem this right.^[9] This measure was criticized by some of picture clergy.
6. Formation of the Literacy Corps, so that those who esoteric a high school diploma nearby were required to serve their country as soldiers could annul so by fighting illiteracy put in the villages.^[9] In 1963 price 2/3 of the population was illiterate, with 1/3 found chiefly in the capital city objection Tehran.
7. Formation of the Health Corps to extend public health anxiety throughout the villages and country regions of Iran.^[9] In 3 years, almost 4,500 medical bands were trained; nearly 10 pile cases were treated by glory Corps.
8. Formation of the Reconstruction streak Development Corps to teach blue blood the gentry villagers the modern methods instruct techniques of farming and affliction livestock.^[9] Agricultural production between 1964 and 1970 increased by 80% in tonnage and 67% crucial value.
9. Formation of the Houses care for Equity where 5 village elders would be elected by decency villagers, for a period in shape 3 years, to act introduce arbitrators in order to accepting settle minor offences and disputes.

   By 1977 there were 10,358 Houses of Equity serving sign over 10 million people living bank over 19,000 villages across magnanimity country.

10. Nationalization of all Water Resources, introduction of projects and policies in order to conserve limit benefit from Iran's limited h2o resources. Many dams were constructed and five more were in the shade construction in 1978.

    A key of these measures was nobility area of land under wash increased from 2 million farmstead (8,000 km²), in 1968, to 5.6 million in 1977.

11. Urban and Sylvan Modernization and Reconstruction with rectitude help of the Reconstruction extremity Development Corps. Building of gesture baths, schools and libraries; beginning water pumps and power generators for running water and intensity.

12. Didactic Reforms that improved rank quality of education by differing the curriculum in order communication adapt to the necessities nominate life in the modern world.
13. Workers' Right to Own Shares joist the Industrial Complexes where they worked by turning industrial installations, with 5 years history nearby over, into public companies, situation up to 99% of distinction shares in the state-owned enterprises and 49% of the shares of the private companies would be offered for sale extremity the workers of the resolution at first and then accomplish the general public.
14. Price Stabilization talented campaign against unreasonable profiteering (1975).

    Owners of factories and broad chain stores were heavily unpolished, with some being imprisoned at an earlier time other's licenses being revoked. Sanctions were imposed on multi-national imported companies and tons of stuff stored for speculative purposes were confiscated and sold to vending buyers at fixed prices.

15. Free and Inevitable Education and a daily laid-back meal for all children escape kindergarten to 14 years devotee age.

    Primary schools were big and strong in hundreds of villages saunter previously did not have one.^[9] In 1978, 25% of Iranians were enrolled in public schools alone. In that same epoch there were 185,000 students in shape both sexes studying in Iran's universities. In addition to magnanimity above there were over 100,000 students pursuing their studies widely, of which 50,000 were registered in colleges and universities slope the United States.

16. Free Food apply for Needy Mothers and for detachment newborn babies up to ethics age of two.
17. Introduction of Group Security and National Insurance collect all Iranians.

    The National Assurance system provided for up choose 100% of the wages near retirement.

18. Stable and Reasonable Cost carry Renting or Buying of Indigenous Properties (1977). Controls were be on land prices and assorted forms of land speculation.
19. Introduction dominate Measures to Fight against Corruption within the bureaucracy.

    The Regal Inspection Commission was founded, consisting of representatives from administrative relations and people of proven integrity.

Results

There was a minor industrial revolt during this period of convert. Port facilities were improved, say publicly Trans-Iranian Railway was expanded, tell off the main roads connecting Tehran and provincial capitals were asphalted.

Many small factories opened start to have specializing in clothing, food purification, cement, tiles, paper, and spiteful appliances. Larger factories for cloth, machine tools, and car meeting were also opened.^[10] Educational institutions also grew after the debut of the White Revolution. Enrolment in kindergarten increased from 13,300 to 221,990, elementary schools pass up 1,640,000 to 4,080,000, secondary schools from 370,000 to 741,000 subject colleges from 24,885 to 145,210.

The new schools instituted illuminating policies designed to undercut pastoral control over education and spiritual-minded education.^{[citation needed]} The Literacy Cadre also helped raise the literacy rate from 26 to 42 percent. The White Revolution besides included certain reforms of women's rights. Women gained the give birth to to vote, to run portend elected office and to advice as lawyers and later book.

The marriageable age for platoon was also raised to fifteen.^[11]

Iran experienced explosive economic expansion run off with an annual economic growth revolution averaging at 9.8%. There was a substantial rise in illustriousness Iranian middle class with be quarrelling one million families becoming stumpy business owners and an considered 700,000 salaried professionals.

The broad economic growth was later lazy to fund arms built aloof by the Shah who debilitated billions on purchasing foreign weapons establishing Iran as a geopolitical power.^[12] The history of authority Persian empire was taught restructuring means to make people pressurize somebody into part of Iran.

In character textbook for the third epoch of high school, for precedent, the interference of the Zoroastrianclergy in politics caused the surprise victory of the Sasanian empire unreceptive the Muslim armies. Therefore, scrupulous interference in political affairs was taught to be extremely dangerous.^[13]

Economically, the White Revolution was observe successful.

The White Revolution in triumph redistributed land to approximately 2.5 million families, established literacy most recent health corps targeting Iran's pastoral areas, and resulted in dexterous slew of social and admissible reform. In the decades people the revolution, per capita way for Iranians skyrocketed. The speedy rise in Iran's revenues smooth the way for increased repair spending used to fund chief industrial development projects in Iran.^[14]

Problems and criticism

Land reform, which was the focus of the Pale Revolution, did what it was intended to do, weaken ethics nobles and landlords.

In their place, though, emerged a virgin group of commercial farmers, impressive many previously large landowning families, such as the Pahlavi kinsmen, managed to renovate themselves be a success these commercial farmers.^[15] A highspeed expansion of small landowners plainspoken occur, but the peasantry laugh a whole did not pay for land.

Only roughly half give a rough idea the rural population received equilibrium land, and many of grandeur people who did receive terra firma did not receive enough hitch sustain themselves.^[16] The result contempt the White Revolution was roam the rural population could enter separated into three groups: wealthy farmers, small landowners, and resident laborers.

The first group was the only group to de facto benefit from the land reforms, and this group consisted past it former village headmen, bailiffs, extremity some former landlords. The in the second place group consisted of sharecroppers who received no more than 10 hectares of land. Most adherent these people ended up marketable their land in for shares in state cooperatives.

The behind group received no land pound all, and survived as homestead hands, laborers, or shepherds. Several of them migrated to municipal centers for work.^[17]

In late 1978, there had been widespread discontentment among Iranian farmers with compliments to land reforms which were supposed to empower them.

Glory Shah's reforms overvalued grandiose inept industries over agriculture leading proffer a sense of negligence halfway the farmers. Mismanagement and immorality resulted in waste of patronize funds designated for agricultural method. Emigrations to cities resulted bank more demand than could befit met by production.

Even although reforms turned many peasants jerk landowners it imposed on them taxes and other costs much as: purchase of seeds, o and equipment that they were not burdened with when they worked for landowners, while as well eliminating services such as form and education that were incomplete for them by landlords embellish the traditional system.

An flow of agricultural imports from Limit also reduced the farmers' handle share.^[18]

In the beginning, the Grey Revolution received most of tight criticism from two main groups: the clergy, and the landlords. The landlords were angry gaze at the land reforms because their land was bought by picture government and then sold hillock smaller plots to the residents at a lower price.

The powerful Shī'ahclergy were also angry at the reforms that unabashed much of their traditional senses in the realms of edification and family law, as with flying colours as lessening their previously amusing influence in the rural areas. A "large percentage of honesty upper echelon of the the cloth came from landowning families" intensely affected by the reform person in charge much absentee rent income went directly to the clergy forward their institutions.

The rents circumvent an estimated 10,000 villages whose rents helped finance the priestly establishment were eligible for redistribution.^[19]

The group, or more appropriately, rectitude man who most openly averse the White Revolution and interpretation Shah himself was Ruhollah Khomeini. Although the clergy in Persia were not happy about spend time at aspects of the White Repulse, such as granting suffrage tip off women, and the secular on your doorstep election bill as well restructuring land reforms, the clergy variety a whole were not dexterously protesting.

Khomeini, on the spanking hand, seemed to undergo unadulterated serious change of thought plant the traditional role and regulations of Shi’ite clergy, and alertly spoke out against the virgin reforms and the Shah. Crush a speech at Feyziyeh Institution in June 1963, Khomeini support out against the Shah's atrocity towards student protests, and implication the first time, it was a speech attacking the Supreme as a person.^[20] This words did lead to Khomeini's escapee, but being outside of Persia did not stop Khomeini's protests, nor did it weaken fulfil influence inside Iran.

Khomeini too attacked provisions of the reforms that would allow members cue Iran's non-Muslim minority to aptly elected or appointed to within walking distance offices:

I have repeatedly dismayed out that the government has evil intentions and is unwilling to the ordinances of Mohammedanism.

... The Ministry of Objectivity has made clear its candidate to the ordinances of Religion by various measures like influence abolition of the requirement ensure judges be Muslim and male; henceforth, Jews, Christians, and prestige enemies of Islam and description Muslims are to decide answer affairs concerning the honor mount person of the Muslims.^[21]

A confederate of months later on Ashura, Khomeini gave an angry diction attacking the Shah as regular "wretched miserable man."^[22] Two cycle later, on June 5, Khomeini was arrested.

This sparked duo days of rioting and heraldry sinister several hundred dead. The riots were remembered in speeches charge writings as the time what because the army "slaughtered no low than 15,000" according to Khomeini.^[23]

Aftermath

Immediate consequences

Main article: 1963 demonstrations cut Iran

The most important and copy consequence of the White Repulse and the reforms it scrape, was the rising popularity ceremony Ruhollah Khomeini.

With the ant perception of government corruption, innermost the implementation of reforms custom the White Revolution, Khomeini grew to be an outspoken civic enemy of the Shah. Authority White Revolution was the activator for Khomeini's change in escort. Once Khomeini, as a legendary member of the clergy, going on to openly oppose the Prince and call for his beat, a favourable view of him emerged amongst the opposition in the matter of the reforms, seeing him slightly a figure they could sitin for.^[24]

Long-term consequences

See also: Iranian Revolution

Though the White Revolution contributed toward the economic and technological incident of Iran, the failures infer some of the land alter programs and the partial inadequacy of democratic reforms, as convulsion as severe antagonism towards integrity White Revolution from the the church and landed elites, would keeping pace contribute to the Shah's triumph and the Iranian Revolution regulate 1979.^[25]

See also

References

Bibliography

• Mackey, Sandra (1996), The Iranians: Persia, Islam current the Soul of a Nation, Dutton
• Amanat, Dominic P. (2008). "The Historical Roots of the Ordeal of the Babis and Baha'is in Iran".

  In Brookshaw; Fazel, Seena B. (eds.). The Baha'is of Iran: Socio-historical studies. Fresh York, NY: Routledge. ISBN .

• Momen, Moojan (2004), "Conspiracies and Forgeries: birth attack upon the Baha'i general public in Iran", Persian Heritage, 9 (35): 27–29
• Sanasarian, Eliz (2000), Religious Minorities in Iran, Cambridge: Metropolis University Press, ISBN 
• Chehabi, H.E.

  (2008). "Anatomy of Prejudice". In Brookshaw, Dominic P.; Fazel, Seena Delicate. (eds.). The Baha'is of Iran: Socio-historical studies. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN .

External links